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The Khazar Khaganate. The Khazar Khaganate was a major commercial and political power that controlled the crucial steppes between the Black and Caspian seas from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE. They acted as a vital geographic buffer, successfully halting the northern expansion of the early Arab Islamic empires into Eastern Europe. This state is exceptionally famous in history because its ruling elite and a significant portion of its population famously converted to Judaism. This unique religious choice allowed them to remain neutral intermediaries between the competing Christian Byzantines and the Islamic caliphates.
Their massive wealth came directly from taxing the vibrant trade traveling along the Volga River, connecting northern forests to southern markets. Their absolute dominance began to slip in the late 9th century as new nomadic groups like the Pechenegs pushed into their territory. The fatal blow arrived in the 960s when the rising power of Kievan Rus launched a devastating military campaign. The Rus completely sacked the Khazar capital of Atil, permanently destroying the khaganate.